{"id":46508,"date":"2026-06-11T10:40:10","date_gmt":"2026-06-11T03:40:10","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/transbordernews.in.th\/home\/?p=46508"},"modified":"2026-06-11T10:40:21","modified_gmt":"2026-06-11T03:40:21","slug":"rare-earth-mining-in-myanmar-and-the-test-of-chinas-new-legal-framework","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/transbordernews.in.th\/home\/?p=46508","title":{"rendered":"Rare Earth Mining in Myanmar and the Test of China\u2019s New Legal Framework"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Arisara Lekkham
Lecturer, School of Law, Mae Fah Luang University<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n

\n
\"\"<\/a><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

Amid growing concerns over arsenic and heavy metal contamination in the Kok, Sai, and Ruak Rivers throughout 2025\u20132026, public attention in Thailand has increasingly focused on mining activities located in the upstream areas of Myanmar. At the same time, reports from multiple sources indicate the rapid expansion of rare earth mining operations in Myanmar and their connection to China\u2019s supply chains. China currently accounts for approximately 60\u201370 percent of global rare earth production and nearly 90 percent of global processing and refining capacity, making it the central hub of the global rare earth supply chain.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

In this context, the key question is no longer limited to identifying the source of transboundary pollution. Rather, it concerns how China will regulate such activities when the relevant supply chains, investments, technologies, and end markets are linked to Chinese actors.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Over the past several years, China has steadily developed a legal framework governing rare earth resources and overseas investment. One significant development was the 2023 revision of the Catalogue of Technologies Prohibited and Restricted from Export by China, which placed various rare earth extraction, separation, and processing technologies under strict export controls and licensing requirements. The catalogue functions within China\u2019s export control regime and requires exporters to disclose end users and intended purposes of use. It also authorizes the Chinese government to deny or revoke export licenses where exports may affect national security or public interests.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In other words, the inclusion of certain rare earth technologies in the catalogue provides a legal basis for the Chinese government to prevent Chinese companies from transferring such technologies to overseas mining projects or processing facilities without prior governmental scrutiny. Consequently, in the case of largely unmonitored rare earth mining operations in Myanmar, where Chinese companies may be involved and controlled technologies may be utilized, legitimate questions arise as to whether such technology transfers comply with China\u2019s export control laws and why Chinese licensing and oversight mechanisms have not been systematically applied to investigate these cases.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This is precisely why rare earth mining in Myanmar has become a test of whether the Chinese government is genuinely prepared to enforce its export control laws against its own companies operating abroad, rather than using such laws solely as instruments of strategic competition with foreign states.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 2024, China further strengthened its regulatory framework by promulgating the Rare Earth Management Regulations, the country\u2019s first comprehensive legislation governing the entire rare earth supply chain. The Regulations cover mining, smelting and separation, trading, circulation, and strategic reserves. They establish rare earths as resources subject to centralized state management, including production quotas, mining licenses, environmental controls in production areas, and traceability requirements throughout the supply chain from extraction to downstream industrial use.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Regulations also impose significant penalties for illegal mining, unauthorized trading, and violations of environmental requirements, ranging from suspension of operations and monetary fines to criminal liability in certain circumstances. These provisions reflect China\u2019s view that rare earths are not merely ordinary commodities but strategic resources whose production volumes, mining rights, and environmental and social standards must remain under close governmental supervision.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yet a striking contradiction emerges. While China has intensified crackdowns on illegal mining and strengthened environmental enforcement domestically, there are growing indications that some Chinese investors have shifted production activities to Myanmar, where regulatory oversight is comparatively weaker, allowing environmentally harmful mining practices to externalize environmental costs onto communities located along downstream river systems.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This potential practice of \u201cexporting pollution\u201d is now facing a new legal test through China\u2019s latest regulatory development: the Regulations on Overseas Investment, which will enter into force on 1 July 2026. The Regulations establish a comprehensive framework for governing overseas investments by Chinese investors. Beyond approval and registration procedures, they introduce behavioural standards and enforcement mechanisms that enable Chinese authorities to regulate and sanction overseas investments that create environmental, social, or national security risks.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Article 5 provides that Chinese investors conducting business abroad must comply with applicable laws and international practices, respect local customs and cultural traditions, observe business ethics, conduct business in good faith, engage in fair competition, fulfill social responsibilities, and safeguard China\u2019s national image. The provision further requires investors not to disrupt market competition, damage the environment or ecosystems, infringe upon the lawful rights and interests of employees, endanger China\u2019s national security, or harm national and public interests.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This provision makes clear that, from the perspective of the Chinese state, overseas investment is not merely a profit-seeking activity of private enterprises. Rather, it is an activity that must comply with legal and international norms and carry responsibilities toward society, the environment, and China\u2019s international reputation. Consequently, when allegations arise that mining activities in Myanmar connected to Chinese capital, technology, or supply chains may be contributing to arsenic and heavy metal contamination affecting downstream communities in Thailand, the Chinese government cannot simply remain passive. Instead, it possesses a legal basis\u2014and arguably a responsibility\u2014to undertake proactive investigations into the conduct of Chinese investors operating in Myanmar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Article 13 further provides that overseas investment may not be used as a channel to export or utilize goods, technologies, services, or data whose export is prohibited by the state, nor to export or use restricted items without authorization. It also prohibits the transfer of prohibited or restricted goods, technologies, services, or data to foreign jurisdictions through technical personnel exchanges, technical assistance, consulting activities, or cross-border training.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This prohibition is particularly significant for the rare earth industry because various rare earth extraction and processing technologies are included in China\u2019s list of restricted export technologies. In practice, rare earth mining operations in Myanmar frequently rely on Chinese expertise and technical knowledge, including extraction methods such as in-situ leaching. Therefore, if Chinese investors use overseas investment arrangements to deploy engineers or technicians to transfer restricted technologies to mining operations in Myanmar without authorization, such conduct may simultaneously violate both China\u2019s export control regime and its overseas investment regulations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Furthermore, Article 15 establishes a legal mechanism enabling Chinese authorities to initiate national security reviews of overseas investment projects whenever such projects are deemed relevant to strategic national interests.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Given that rare earth resources and extraction technologies are officially classified as strategic resources and controlled technologies under Chinese law, the Chinese government possesses a clear legal basis to investigate financial flows, investment structures, and technology transfers associated with Chinese companies involved in mining operations in Myanmar. Such investigations would help determine whether unregulated mining activities are creating strategic risks for China\u2019s own rare earth supply chains and national interests.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Regulations also provide for sanctions against investments conducted in prohibited sectors or in violation of approval and registration requirements. These sanctions include corrective orders, confiscation of unlawful gains, project termination, mandatory divestment of shares or assets, and temporary prohibitions on overseas investment activities for periods ranging from one to three years. These provisions demonstrate that if Chinese companies operating rare earth projects in Myanmar are found to have violated Chinese laws or policies, the Chinese government possesses both the legal authority and enforcement tools necessary to impose meaningful remedies and penalties rather than merely expressing concern through diplomatic statements.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

At present, sufficient preliminary evidence exists to raise concerns regarding the expansion of poorly regulated rare earth mining operations in Myanmar, their connection to Chinese supply chains, and their potential impacts on downstream communities in Thailand. These circumstances justify directing several critical questions to Beijing:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u2022 Are Chinese companies currently investing in, financing, or holding interests in rare earth mines located in the upstream regions of Myanmar?<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u2022 Have investment channels been used to transfer restricted rare earth extraction and processing technologies in violation of Article 13 and without the required governmental authorization?<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u2022 Do these mining activities violate the prohibition against environmental degradation and ecosystem damage, as well as the social responsibility obligations imposed under Article 5?<\/p>\n\n\n\n

If the answer to these questions is affirmative, the Chinese government possesses a clear legal basis to suspend the relevant investments, require divestment of assets, and impose sanctions upon those responsible. If the answer is negative, China should nevertheless demonstrate that it has conducted serious, transparent, and systematic investigations to reassure affected communities throughout the region that rare earth resources entering China are not tainted by environmental pollution or violations of the rights of local and downstream populations. In this sense, the Kok, Sai, and Ruak River basins are not merely areas affected by mining activities. They have become a proving ground for whether China\u2019s new legal framework can effectively extend environmental accountability and corporate governance obligations beyond its borders and into the overseas operations of Chinese investors in practice.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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