Klairung Promsupha
“I don’t really want to tell anyone that I am ethnically Wa.”
A male worker abruptly said after nervously revealing that he came from Shan State and that he is neither ethnically Tai or Shan, nor Lahu or Akha whose many communities have been built on both sides of the Thailand-Shan State border.
“If I tell people I am Wa, they would label me a drug dealer.” He fled from the community near the Thai border before the age of military conscription. For almost the past twenty years, the young man managed to keep his Wa identity hidden from anyone.
“Everyone doesn’t like our people.” He means both Thai and Shan fellow workers.
In 2024, the Thai security agencies has been advised to watch out Wa as an emerging “threat” since the middle of the year. As a result, issues concerning Wa and the United Wa State Army (UWSA) have previously been brought up during discussions. Still, the issue did not appear to pose a big problem to our national security, not until, the reports of the incursion of Red Wa.”
In fact, the establishment of UWSA military bases along the Thai border, reportedly nine of them, has not happened just yesterday. UWSA has come here to replace the bases of the Mong Tai Army (MTA) since Khun Sa was defeated and he surrendered himself to the Burmese military government in 1996. With the advent of the UWSA forces in 1989. It has become a major force used by the Burmese army to launch offensives to reclaim area between Thailand-Shan State border which used to be occupied by various ethnic Shan forces. UWSA in return has been bestowed with the right to occupy the military bases and their surrounding areas. It has since ushered in the forced relocation (2000-2002) of hundreds of thousands of ethnic Wa from north of Wa State to resettle in areas previously occupied by the ethnic Shan, Lahu, and Akha along the Thai border giving rise to the informal establishment of the “South Wa State”.
The occupying of territory adjacent to the Thai border, or even beyond, is nothing new. The point is UWSA is one of the most powerful ethnic armed organizations in Myanmar with nearly thirty thousand troops and another ten thousand of mercenaries plus modern equipment. This is yet to mention the connection between the Wa armed forces and narcotic trade, the issue of which has been frequently mentioned.
The issue that is bringing attention from Thailand and the USA is perhaps the political and economic influence of UWSP (United wa State Party, UWSA’s political wing) with China’s support. Its influence has kept spreading far and wide incessantly since the 2021 military coup in Myanmar.
“UWSA has become a regional threat for a long time. But now the spotlight being shown on them exclusively because of its connection with China and the Chinese influence in Myanmar or the region. They have thus become another formidable force,” said a Shan activist who has been living in exile in Thailand for more than two decades. ” When we look at UWSA, we could see the Chinese shadow. Unfortunately, when the issue of Wa or UWSA is brought up, we do not dare to directly discuss our real concern which is the Chinese influence. “
For anyone who has started to study Myanmar since more than 30 years ago, they must be familiar with the name “Wa” as a tribe famous for savage and brutal headhunting tradition. But not long after, the headhunting image has been replaced by the term “drug”. Thai people began to know Wa from the name of “Chao Maha Sang”, who was arrested for drug trafficking in 2005. Another more notorious name was ” Wei Hsueh-kang “, the legendary drug warlord who still remain at large despite the arrest warrant issued by the United States. And it is said that he is enjoying a happy life in China
The latter perhaps makes Thai people confused if Wa are descendants of China since Wei Hsueh-kang, a high-ranking leader of the UWSA armed forces bore a Chinese name. Actually, Wei Hsueh-kang was a Chinese and was born in China. UWSA is also led by many leaders who are Chinese descendants from mainland China, or Chinese Kokang, or Chinese Wa, while both ethnic Wa and Chinese do not belong to the same ethnicity or do not speak languages from the same language family.
Wa belongs to the same ethnic group as “Lua” or “Lawa”, which is known in the upper northern region of Thailand. The Wa people are the native people who speak the Mon-Khmer languages, similar to the “Dara Ang” or Palaung (in Myanmar, they are called ” Ta’ang”). According to UWSP, there are at least six hundred thousand Wa people in Myanmar. Combined with Wa people in both China and Thailand, the number of Wa descendants should come to around one million. Wa people currently share cultural diversity and speak many accents. This has been influenced by the surrounding cultures. In certain areas, they no longer call themselves Wa including the Tai Loi (or Tai Doi) or Blang, etc.
Boonchuay Srisawat, an prolific author of valuable ethnic studies stated in his work “Hill tribes in Thailand” that the Lawa people in the past were the occupiers of the land of Suvarnabhumi which included the current territories of Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar and Yunnan. According to the chronicles of Keng Tung, Lawa were the first humans born from gourds before the Karen and Shan people. A Shan proverb that goes “Ghosts built sky, Lawa built cities “, is a testament to the existence of the Lawa who ruled the land before others. During the coronation ceremony of Keng Tung Princes, a Lawa person shall be seated on the golden pavilion and the incoming Shan Prince is supposed to whip the Lawa and chase them away.
In the colonial era, the British recorded according their views as colonialist that the Wa people in northern Shan State bordering China’s Yunnan could be divided into the wild and the tame groups. The former group refers to the Wa who live freely on high mountains and hardly interact with other ethnic groups. Isolated, they did not think they belonged to either Myanmar or Shan State, or any country. The latter are a group which was close to the ethnic Shan people. They speak Shan, observed Buddhism and adopted the culture and the principality government.
It is worth noting that in the works of Boonchuay Srisawat written since 1963, Wa was still not linked with narcotic trade. They were yet to be treated as a threat and there was no mention about the Wa nationalism movement or armed forces.
“Everyone exploited Wa soldiers. Everyone was trying to forge an alliance with the Wa. But it was the Wa who had to shed their lives and were often blamed for the problem of opium.” According to an interview with Chao Mahasang of the Wa National Organization (WNO). The interview was conducted by Martin Smith, a prolific author on politics and conflicts in Myanmar and author of “Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity”.
Before the army of Wa is so ominous as the present, the Wa people were “exploited” during proxy wars and the people had to shed their lives extensively. The initial armament of the Wa people was not triggered by a popular ethnic movement. Rather, it was prompted by a fight against the “invaders”, together with other ethnic Shan groups. One of the first leaders of Shan State’s fighters who openly waged war against the Burmese army at Tang Yang in 1959 was the Wa. When the Shan State Army (SSA) was established in 1964, soldiers of Wa Prince of Mong Len also join the armed force. And when the Burmese army attempted to sack Mong Len and Na Wee, they were met with the resistance led by “Chao Maha Sang”, the Prince of Wiang Ngeon, who stood up and brought his troops to wage the war of resistance.
Wa soldiers were said to be brave, fierce, and cruel and they were wanted by all ethnic armed forces. In Shan State, apart from Wa soldiers in SSA (North), Wa people have also been recruited to join the Kuomintang army (Chinese Nationalist Party against Communist Party of China). When the Communist Party tried to recruit Wa residents in their community, they also recruited the Wa soldiers under the leadership of “Chao Yee Lai” to fight with them. The soldiers were given uniforms, food, and weapons, and were motivated that their fight shall earn them freedom and an autonomous region, like the Wa in China.
Chao Maha Sang’s troops, which were put under pressure of all armed groups, were also persuaded by the Burmese army to join the “Ka Kwuay Ye” or the military volunteer unit under the armed groups of “Khun Sa” and Ko Kang of the drug kingpin Lo Hsing Han. However, in the end, the Communist Party of Burma was able to successfully occupy the northern Shan State and the Ka Kwuay Ye was no longer needed for the Burmese army and was eventually disbanded by General Ne Win.
In 1971, the Wa National Army (WNA) was born under the leadership of Chao Maha Sang, who led hundreds of soldiers and families down to resettle at the Thai border. WNA is allied with the Shan State Progressive Party (SSPP), which is the political wing of SSA and the National Democratic Front (NDF) Soon after, SSPP decided to cooperate with the Communist Party of China and was promised that in the future, they would be given the right to self-governance including the Wa-controlled area. WNA forces thus became fragmented as part of its troops decided to stay with the SSPP/SSA in order to gain the right to govern their area. Chao Maha Sang went to join the Shan army of “Chao Kon Zheng” at Ban Piang Luang, bordering Chiang Mai. Later, they combined forces with Khun Sa to form the Mong Tai Army (MTA). The other two groups led by “Ai Siao Sue” and “Bogan Sue” turned to join the Chinese Kuomintang army with their bases along the Thai border as well. The Wa soldiers which permeated in various groups have become stronger with additional forces from various areas and other armed groups which have either splintered and merged constantly. The key driving force including vested interest in drug business of the Kuomintang MTA and others have led to the expansion of the trade network. This has led to the constant fierce competition among the Wa soldiers scattered in various armed forces including the Communist Party and the Burmese army.
The formidable UWSA army today has been formed in the wake of the protests to demand democracy and oppose the military coup in 1988, which has led to the establishment of the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) a few months after. In 1989, forces under Chao Yee Lai from the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) have reached an agreement with Ai Siao Sue’s WNA, which was allied with the Kuomintang army, to form UWSA and declare a ceasefire agreement with the Burma Army as well as to get prepared to launch an offensive to reclaim the area controlled by MTA which allied with Chao Mahasang’s WNA and won the battle.
“As far as we know, an caveat of that operation was that UWSA would occupy the area that used to be controlled by Khun Sa, and the Burmese army would close one eye and let them carry out their drug trade,“ said a Burmese reporter who did not want to be identified and a former pro-democracy activist who used to fight in the juggles for several years. “When Khun Sa’s trade was transferred to UWSA, they became much richer and more powerful. But most importantly, they are smart enough to not stop only at drug dealing. “
Having the experience of losing uncountable number of Wa citizens during the wars which have failed to bring to them the genuine power to govern themselves makes the UWSP leaders realize that they could only build their own empire once they can establish a force which shall not become a tool used by anybody. They want to be an army that can cooperate with any other armies on an equal basis.
The experience of the Wa groups permeated in various armed groups have to fight each other could be a reason that prompt UWSA/UWSP to opt to become a nationalist organization which places an importance on the organizational strength rather than ethnocentrism. UWSA is a Wa armed force which is not reluctant to appoint persons from other nations, particularly the Chinese and the Thai to prominent positions as it has been reported that some Thai drug dealers have been appointed a military rank in the Wa armed force.
The lessons learned from the survival of the armed forces they have interacted with makes the Wa leaderships confident that in order to create a strong army, money is indispensable. And the best solution is to make one own money without having to rely on anyone else. Money will not only make the leaders comfortable. If they manage it well, it will bring in arms for the force and create their stability, the stability of the army and the state in a long run. UWSA thus uses drug dealing and their experience since being allied with the Kuomintang, MTA, etc. as a tool to acquire power which could never have been acquired as a traditional Prince could do.
Currently, UWSA has a large military headquarters in the “Special Zone 2”, which is the Wa Autonomous Region acquired following the signing of the ceasefire agreement with the Burmese military government in 1989 and which was stipulated in the Burmese Constitution in 2008. UWSP adopts the Chinese politburo and single-party command system. The government is devolved to the local level and managed by various ministries such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, etc. and the Office of Education, the Public Health Office, etc.
The administration is tasked with revenue collection through taxes, customs, and has power to manage its own revenue. Within the Wa autonomous region, people use the Chinese Yuan as a main currency and Chinese as official language. Consumer goods are imported from China. And there are many Wa Chinese nationals living in the area. Meanwhile, a number of Wa Burmese live in China. The urban area has been developed and modernized with schools, hospitals, and utilities. Meanwhile the southern Wa state on the Thai border, which has not been officially recognized as part of the UWSP’s autonomous region, does not see such development like its counterpart in the north.
UWSP makes it clear that it does not want to separate from Myanmar as long as its right to self-determination and self-administration is still guaranteed. During successive administrations, the Wa leaders have successfully launched bids to open a negotiation about its power to self-determination and economic activities before anyone else.
The fact that is often overlooked is UWSP’s economic growth does not stop only in drug business. Its investments have expanded to almost all sectors. The businesses of UWSP leaders and families are not just for money laundering. But they are serious businesses to acquire interest. as well. This includes a joint venture with China for tin mining in the autonomous region, the establishment of a company or joint venture with the Chinese for tin mining in the autonomous region, the establishment of companies or joint-investments in agrobusiness, jade, precious stone, and gold mining, electronics, construction, information, airlines, energy business, and arms trade. The power of Wa does not just rest on its troops and wealth, but also its economic power that expands over states and various provinces around the country and may go far beyond Myanmar.
“In the past twenty years, drugs have made UWSP so rich. Various Wa leaders send their children to study abroad. Many of them hold Thai nationality, graduate from Thai universities and further their study in the United States and other countries as Thai or Burmese citizens,” said a Burmese reporter. “We can see that these new generations starting to yearn to live with the international community with their self-pride. They do not want to exist while having to constantly avoid identifying themselves as Wa, or being part of a UWSP family whose names are blacklisted by the US government. Drug trafficking may not be easily stopped, but the new generation of people want to move forward. And they are an important force to drive investments and businesses that grow with unlimited reserves. ”
The businesses that enable UWSP to expand its control in Myanmar are related to arms manufacturing and trade and arms dealership to distribute Chinese made weapons to both anti-government forces and supporters of the Burmese army. The UWSP’s arms trade has helped to feed weapons to armed groups in the region for a long time. According to the India’s Institute for Defence Studies and Analysis, UWSP is a major arms dealer to distribute weapons to the armed groups in the northern Assam State.
“UWSA has enabled small armed groups like the Ta-ang National Liberation Army (TNLA), or the Arakan Army (AA) which was started by some workers in Kachin state, to become so powerful. It is said that they have received weapons, both as a gift, and sold at a friendly price. A Shan activist explains with an illustration showing the route of arms transfer from Wa State to ethnic states, west of Thailand, to the area near the Three Pagoda Pass. “Being able to decide which groups to receive arms, free or unfree, symbolizes such power”.
Reclaiming the area at the Thai border which is being occupied by the Wa can legitimately be carried out by the Thai state. Nonetheless, it might expose the old wounds since Thailand used to adopt a policy to allow other armed forces to set up their bases on the buffer area at the disputed territory.
An effort to prevent Thailand from being a hub linking between drug manufacturing sites and to prevent the import of drugs into the country is indispensable. We shall not forget, however, that drugs have not been traded and trafficked by the UWSA alone. The publications by the Office of the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Justice also confirmed that important drug production sites are located in the areas under the influence of dozens of militia armed groups in the north of the Shan State, which the Burmese army has recruited as volunteer soldiers known as “Ka Kwuay Ye”. And there are various forces that are hired to transport drugs south toward Myanmar and Thailand. On the western border of Thailand, there are also armed groups that produce, transport and do drug dealing.
Being cautious of the power of UWSP backed by China is inevitable. Still, the Burmese reporter holds that “We must not forget that China’s opportunity to influence both the Wa and with various groups in Myanmar has been made possible by the violence perpetrated by the Burmese army. It was also due to the NLD government’s lack of understanding about ethnic issues. Meanwhile, the United States, ASEAN or Thailand has failed offer adequate support to the resistance armed groups” The opposition launched against UWSP or China may not be sufficient to bring about change as long as the policies of various states towards Myanmar, its democracy, and all the people remain unchanged.
Like it or not, UWSP will continue to be a formidable actor in Myanmar’s and this region’s politics for a long time. A strong Wa state will not collapse easily. UWSA will still have their bases along the Thai border or become an unavoidable “neighbor” of Thailand. It is necessary to strike the balance of the relationship and powers, like how we have done to other neighbors without our choosing.
“Asking me if Wa are a regional threat that states have to monitor or not, I would say “Yes”. The same response has been given by activists who are ethnically Shan or Burmese, and a Thai government officer who did not want to be identified. “In my opinion, however, the army that really poses a major threat to the region is the Burmese army.”
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Reading resources;
1) Boonchuay Srisawat. Hill tribe people in Thailand. 2nd edition, Bangkok: Matichon Publishing, 2002.
